Airport pavement markings and signs provide information that is useful to a pilot during takeoff, landing, and taxiing. Uniformity in airport markings and signs from one airport to another enhances safety and improves efficiency. Pilots are encouraged to work with the operators of the airports they use to achieve the marking and sign standards described in this section. The markings and signs described in this section of the AIM reflect the current FAA recommended standards.

For the purpose of this presentation the Airport Pavement Markings have been grouped into four areas:

• Runway Markings.
• Taxiway Markings.
• Holding Position Markings.
• Other Markings.

Marking Colors

Markings for runways are white. Markings defining the landing area on a heliport are also white except for hospital heliports which use a red "H" on a white cross. Markings for taxiways, areas not intended for use by aircraft (closed and hazardous areas), and holding positions (even if they are on a runway) are yellow.

There are three types of markings for runways: visual, nonprecision instrument, and precision instrument. Table 1.1 identifies the marking elements for each type of runway and Table 1.2 identifies runway threshold markings.

Figure 1.1 ~ Precision Instrument Runway Markings

Runway Designators

Runway numbers and letters are determined from the approach direction. The runway number is the whole number nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of the runway, measured clockwise from the magnetic north. The letters, differentiate between left (L), right?(R), or center (C), parallel runways, as applicable:

• For two parallel runways "L" "R."
• For three parallel runways "L" "C" "R."

Runway Centerline Marking

The runway centerline identifies the center of the runway and provides alignment guidance during takeoff and landings. The centerline consists of a line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps.

Runway Aiming Point Marking

The aiming point marking serves as a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft. These two rectangular markings consist of a broad white stripe located on each side of the runway centerline and approximately 1,000 feet from the landing threshold, as shown in Figure 1.1, Precision Instrument Runway Markings.

Runway Touchdown Zone Markers

The touchdown zone markings identify the touchdown zone for landing operations and are coded to provide distance information in 500 feet increments. These markings consist of groups of one, two, and three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in pairs about the runway centerline, as shown in Figure 1.1, Precision Instrument Runway Markings. For runways having touchdown zone markings on both ends, those pairs of markings which extend to within 900 feet of the midpoint between the thresholds are eliminated.

Figure 1.2 ~ Nonprecision Instrument Runway and Visual Runway Markings

Runway Side Stripe Marking

Runway side stripes delineate the edges of the runway. They provide a visual contrast between runway and the abutting terrain or shoulders. Side stripes consist of continuous white stripes located on each side of the runway as shown in Figure 1.4.

Runway Shoulder Markings

Runway shoulder stripes may be used to supplement runway side stripes to identify pavement areas contiguous to the runway sides that are not intended for use by aircraft. Runway Shoulder stripes are Yellow.
(See Figure 1.5).

Runway Threshold Markings

Runway threshold markings come in two configurations. They either consist of eight longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline, as shown in Figure 1.1, or the number of stripes is related to the runway width as indicated in Table 1.2. A threshold marking helps identify the beginning of the runway that is available for landing. In some instances the landing threshold may be relocated or displaced.

Relocation of a Threshold

Sometimes construction, maintenance, or other activities require the threshold to be relocated towards the rollout end of the runway. (See Figure 1.3). When a threshold is relocated, it closes not only a set portion of the approach end of a runway, but also shortens the length of the opposite direction runway. In these cases, a NOTAM should be issued by the airport operator identifying the portion of the runway that is closed, e.g., 10/28 W 900 CLSD. Because the duration of the relocation can vary from a few hours to several months, methods identifying the new threshold may vary. One common practice is to use a ten feet wide white threshold bar across the width of the runway. Although the runway lights in the area between the old threshold and new threshold will not be illuminated, the runway markings in this area may or may not be obliterated, removed, or covered.

Displaced Threshold

A displaced threshold is a threshold located at a point on the runway other than the designated beginning of the runway. Displacement of a threshold reduces the length of runway available for landings. The portion of runway behind a displaced threshold is available for takeoffs in either direction and landings from the opposite direction. A ten feet wide white threshold bar is located across the width of the runway at the displaced threshold. White arrows are located along the centerline in the area between the beginning of the runway and displaced threshold. White arrow heads are located across the width of the runway just prior to the threshold bar, as shown in Figure 1.4.

Demarcation Bar

A demarcation bar delineates a runway with a displaced threshold from a blast pad, stopway or taxiway that precedes the runway. A demarcation bar is 3 feet wide and yellow, since it is not located on the runway as shown in Figure 1.6.

Chevrons

These markings are used to show pavement areas aligned with the runway that are unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing. Chevrons are yellow. (See Figure 1.7).

Runway Threshold Bar

A threshold bar delineates the beginning of the runway that is available for landing when the threshold has been relocated or displaced. A threshold bar is 10 feet in width and extends across the width of the runway, as shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.3 ~ Relocation of a Threshold with Markings for Taxiway Aligned with Runway

Figure 1.4 ~ Displaced Threshold Markings

Figure 1.5 ~ Runway Shoulder Markings

All taxiways should have centerline markings and runway holding position markings whenever they intersect a runway. Taxiway edge markings are present whenever there is a need to separate the taxiway from a pavement that is not intended for aircraft use or to delineate the edge of the taxiway. Taxiways may also have shoulder markings and holding position markings for Instrument Landing System/Microwave Landing System (ILS/MLS) critical areas, and taxiway/taxiway intersection markings.

Taxiway Centerline

Normal Centerline

The taxiway centerline is a single continuous yellow line, 6 inches to 12 inches in width. This provides a visual cue to permit taxiing along a designated path. Ideally, the aircraft should be kept centered over this line during taxi. However, being centered on the taxiway centerline does not guarantee wingtip clearance with other aircraft or other objects.

Enhanced Centerline

At some airports, mostly the larger commercial service airports, an enhanced taxiway centerline will be used. The enhanced taxiway centerline marking consists of a parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the normal taxiway centerline. The taxiway centerlines are enhanced for a maximum of 150 feet prior to a runway holding position marking. The purpose of this enhancement is to warn the pilot that he/she is approaching a runway holding position marking and should prepare to stop unless he/she has been cleared onto or across the runway by ATC. (See Figure 1.8).

Taxiway Edge Markings

Taxiway edge markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway. They are primarily used when the taxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement. There are two types of markings depending upon whether the aircraft is suppose to cross the taxiway edge:

Continuous Markings

These consist of a continuous double yellow line, with each line being at least 6 inches in width spaced 6 inches apart. They are used to define the taxiway edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved surface not intended for use by aircraft.

Dashed Markings

These markings are used when there is an operational need to define the edge of a taxiway or taxilane on a paved surface where the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is intended for use by aircraft, e.g., an apron. Dashed taxiway edge markings consist of a broken double yellow line, with each line being at least 6 inches in width, spaced 6 inches apart (edge to edge). These lines are 15 feet in length with 25 foot gaps. (See Figure 1.9).

Taxi Shoulder Markings

Taxiways, holding bays, and aprons are sometimes provided with paved shoulders to prevent blast and water erosion. Although shoulders may have the appearance of full strength pavement they are not intended for use by aircraft, and may be unable to support an aircraft. Usually the taxiway edge marking will define this area. Where conditions exist such as islands or taxiway curves that may cause confusion as to which side of the edge stripe is for use by aircraft, taxiway shoulder markings may be used to indicate the pavement is unusable. Taxiway shoulder markings are yellow. (See Figure 1.10).

Figure 1.6 ~ Markings for Blast Pad or Stopway or Taxiway Preceding a Displaced Threshold

Figure 1.7 ~ Markings for Blast Pads and Stopways

Figure 1.8 ~ Enhanced Taxiway Centerline

Figure 1.9 ~ Dashed Markings

Figure 1.10 ~ Taxi Shoulder Markings

There are six types of signs installed on airfields: mandatory instruction signs, location signs, direction signs, destination signs, information signs, and runway distance remaining signs.

Figure 1.11 ~Runway Holding Position Sign

Figure 1.12 ~ Holding Position Sign at Beginning of Takeoff Runway

Mandatory Instruction Signs

These signs have a red background with a white inscription and are used to denote:

• An entrance to a runway or critical area and;
• Areas where an aircraft is prohibited from entering.

Typical mandatory signs and applications are:

• Runway Holding Position Sign. This sign is located at the holding position on taxiways that intersect a runway or on runways that intersect other runways. The inscription on the sign contains the designation of the intersecting runway as shown in Figure 1.11. The runway numbers on the sign are arranged to correspond to the respective runway threshold. For example, "15-33" indicates that the threshold for Runway 15 is to the left and the threshold for Runway 33 is to the right.

On taxiways that intersect the beginning of the takeoff runway, only the designation of the takeoff runway may appear on the sign as shown in Figure 1.12, while all other signs will have the designation of both runway directions.

Figure 1.13 ~ Holding Position Sign for a Taxiway that Intersects the Intersection of Two Runways

Figure 1.14 ~ Holding Position Sign for a Runway Approach Area

• If the sign is located on a taxiway that intersects the intersection of two runways, the designations for both runways will be shown on the sign along with arrows showing the approximate alignment of each runway as shown in Figure 1.13. In addition to showing the approximate runway alignment, the arrow indicates the direction to the threshold of the runway whose designation is immediately next to the arrow.
• A runway holding position sign on a taxiway will be installed adjacent to holding position markings on the taxiway pavement. On runways, holding position markings will be located only on the runway pavement adjacent to the sign, if the runway is normally used by air traffic control for "Land, Hold Short" operations or as a taxiway.

Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign

At some airports, it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway located in the approach or departure area for a runway so that the aircraft does not interfere with operations on that runway. In these situations, a sign with the designation of the approach end of the runway followed by a "dash" (-) and letters "APCH" will be located at the holding position on the taxiway. Holding Position Markings will be located on the taxiway pavement. An example of this sign is shown in Figure 1.14. In this example, the sign may protect the approach to Runway 15 and/or the departure for Runway 33.

Figure 1.15 ~ Holding Position Sign for ILS Critical Area

Figure 1.16 ~ Sign Prohibiting Aircraft Entry into an Area

ILS Critical Area Holding Position Sign

At some airports, when the instrument landing system is being used, it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway at a location other than the holding position. In these situations the holding position sign for these operations will have the inscription "ILS" and be located adjacent to the holding position marking on the taxiway. An example of this sign is shown in Figure 1.15.

No Entry Sign

This sign, shown in Figure 1.16, prohibits an aircraft from entering an area. Typically, this sign would be located on a taxiway intended to be used in only one direction or at the intersection of vehicle roadways with runways, taxiways or aprons where the roadway may be mistaken as a taxiway or other aircraft movement surface.

Figure 1.17 ~ Taxiway Location Sign

Figure 1.18 ~ Taxiway Location Sign Collocated with Runway Holding Position Sign

Location Signs

Location signs are used to identify either a taxiway or runway on which the aircraft is located. Other location signs provide a visual cue to pilots to assist them in determining when they have exited an area. The various location signs are described below.

Taxiway Location Sign

This sign has a black background with a yellow inscription and yellow border as shown in Figure 1.17. The inscription is the designation of the taxiway on which the aircraft is located. These signs are installed along taxiways either by themselves or in conjunction with direction signs or runway holding position signs. (See Figure 1.22 and Figure 1.18.)

Figure 1.19 ~ Runway Location Sign

Figure 1.20 ~ Runway Boundary Sign

Runway Location Sign

This sign has a black background with a yellow inscription and yellow border as shown in Figure 1.19. The inscription is the designation of the runway on which the aircraft is located. These signs are intended to complement the information available to pilots through their magnetic compass and typically are installed where the proximity of two or more runways to one another could cause pilots to be confused as to which runway they are on.

Runway Boundary Sign

This sign has a yellow background with a black inscription with a graphic depicting the pavement holding position marking as shown in Figure 1.20. This sign, which faces the runway and is visible to the pilot exiting the runway, is located adjacent to the holding position marking on the pavement. The sign is intended to provide pilots with another visual cue which they can use as a guide in deciding when they are "clear of the runway."

Figure 1.21 ~ ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign

ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign

This sign has a yellow background with a black inscription with a graphic depicting the ILS pavement holding position marking as shown in Figure 1.21. This sign is located adjacent to the ILS holding position marking on the pavement and can be seen by pilots leaving the critical area. The sign is intended to provide pilots with another visual cue which they can use as a guide in deciding when they are "clear of the ILS critical area."

Direction Signs

• Direction signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. The inscription identifies the designation(s) of the intersecting taxiway(s) leading out of the intersection that a pilot would normally be expected to turn onto or hold short of. Each designation is accompanied by an arrow indicating the direction of the turn.
• Each taxiway designation shown on the sign is accompanied by only one arrow. When more than one taxiway designation is shown on the sign each designation and its associated arrow is separated from the other taxiway designations by either a vertical message divider or a taxiway location sign as shown in Figure 1.22.
• Direction signs are normally located on the left prior to the intersection. When used on a runway to indicate an exit, the sign is located on the same side of the runway as the exit. Figure 1.23 shows a direction sign used to indicate a runway exit.
• The taxiway designations and their associated arrows on the sign are arranged clockwise starting from the first taxiway on the pilot's left.
  (See Figure 1.22).
• If a location sign is located with the direction signs, it is placed so that the designations for all turns to the left will be to the left of the location sign; the designations for continuing straight ahead or for all turns to the right would be located to the right of the location sign. (See Figure 1.22) .
• When the intersection is comprised of only one crossing taxiway, it is permissible to have two arrows associated with the crossing taxiway as shown in Figure 1.24. In this case, the location sign is located to the left of the direction sign.

Figure 1.22 ~ Direction Sign Array with Location Sign on Far Side of Intersection

Figure 1.23 ~ Direction Sign for Runway Exit

Figure 1.24 ~ Direction Sign Array for Simple Intersection

Figure 1.25 ~ Destination Sign for Military Area

Figure 1.26 ~ Destination Sign for Common Taxiing Route to Two Runways

Destination Signs

• Destination signs also have a yellow background with a black inscription indicating a destination on the airport. These signs always have an arrow showing the direction of the taxiing route to that destination. Figure 1.25 is an example of a typical destination sign. When the arrow on the destination sign indicates a turn, the sign is located prior to the intersection.
• Destinations commonly shown on these types of signs include runways, aprons, terminals, military areas, civil aviation areas, cargo areas, international areas, and fixed base operators. An abbreviation may be used as the inscription on the sign for some of these destinations.
• When the inscription for two or more destinations having a common taxiing route are placed on a sign, the destinations are separated by a "dot" (D) and one arrow would be used as shown in Figure 1.26.

Runway Lighting

A lighted airport has runway lights situated on both sides of the runway. Some systems are able to operate at High (HIRL) Medium (MIRL) and Low (LIRL) intensity. Many airports have the lighting off during certain night hours, and the pilot must make active by clicks of the microphone. The intensity of HIRL and MIRL runway lights can be controlled by personnel on the ground. The pilot can control the intensity by clicking the microphone on the published Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) for the airport. It takes 7 clicks to turn lights to high, 5 to medium, and 3 for low. Some airports may only provide medium and/or low brightness.

At large airports, there may also be high intensity centerline lighting. Some precision instrument runways have edge touchdown zone lights for the first 3000 feet of runway. These are transverse light bars on each side of the runway. These runways also have yellow end zone lights for the last 2000 feet. The end zone lights are yellow only to the pilot from the landing direction. They appear white from the opposite direction.

Taxiway Lighting

Taxiways edge lights are blue, and are on at night and during the day at times of reduced visibility. At larger airports, the tower personnel can control the intensity of the lights. Also, some taxiways may have embedded green lights along the centerline of the taxiway. They are on during times of reduced visibility to mark the way between the runways and ramp areas.

Approach Lighting

There are numerous approach light systems at large airports with Instrument Landing Systems. These are beyond the scope of the beginning private pilot, and will not be addressed in detail in this material.

Several approach light systems are of interest to the VFR pilot. These are:

• Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)
• Visual Approach Slope Indicators (VASI)
• Precision Approach Slope Indicators (PAPI)

Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)

REIL’s at many airports provide rapid and positive identification of the approach end of a runway. The system consists of a pair of synchronized high intensity flashing lights located on either side of the runway. They are particularly useful when the runway is surrounded with many other lights, in poor visibility conditions, and when the runway lacks contrast with the surrounding terrain. They may be omnidirectional, or may be focused toward the final approach path from the end of the runway.

Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)

There are several forms of VASI’s. All employ lights that indicate a correct slope(s) for approach to landing. They may be used both for day and night operation. They provide an “on slope” glide slope angle of approximately 3°. The 2 bar VASI has 2 ranks of lights. Each rank may consist of one light or two lights side by side. You are “on glide slope” as shown in the center diagram (red over white). You are too high if both ranks are white, as on right. You are too low then both ranks are red as shown on left.

The 3 bar VASI has 3 ranks of lights, The two center show “on glide path” indications. The leftmost is a low path, and the rightmost is a high path. The all red is too low. The all white indication is too high.

Visual Approach Slope Indicators (VASI, PAPI)

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)

The system provides a more precise glides lope indication than does VASI. When all 4 lights are white, you are too high. When all are red, you are too low. When 2 are red and 2 are white you are on a 3° path. Three white on the left indicate a path of 3.2°. Three red on right indicate a 2.8° path. The open clear circles indicate white. The darkened circles indicate red.

The Tri-Color system is a single light that projects 3 colors. The above glide path indication is amber. On glide slope is Green. Below glide slope is red. When the aircraft descends from green to red, the pilot may see amber during the transition.

There is a similar system called the Pulsating Visual Approach Slope Indicator.(Not shown). It is somewhat similar to the Tri-color except a solid white indicates on glide path; steady red on a slightly low path. Pulsating white indicates too high. Pulsating red means too low.

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)

Airport Beacons

An airdrome beacon is a beacon installed at an airport or airdrome to indicate its location to aircraft pilots at night. An iridium beacon mounted on a tower.An airdrome beacon is mounted on top of a towering structure, often a control tower, above other buildings of the airport. It produces flashes not unlike that of a lighthouse.

Airport and heliport beacons are designed in such a way to make them most effective from one to ten degrees above the horizon; however, they can be seen well above and below this peak spread. The beacon may be an omnidirectional flashing xenon strobe, or it may rotate at a constant speed which produces the visual effect of flashes at regular intervals. Flashes may be of just a single color, or of two alternating colors.

During VFR weather conditions, the beacon operates dusk to dawn, but during IFR conditions, the beacon stays on constantly regardless of light conditions.

In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has established the following rules for airport beacons:

Flashing rates

• 24 to 30 per minute for beacons marking airports, landmarks, and points on Federal airways
• 30 to 45 per minute for beacons marking heliports

Color combinations

• White and Green — Lighted land airport
• Green alone* — Lighted land airport
• White and Yellow — Lighted water airport
• Yellow alone* — Lighted water airport
• Green, Yellow, and White — Lighted heliport
• White, White, Green* — Military Airport
• White, Green, Red — Hospital and/or Emergency Services Heliport
• *Green alone or yellow alone is used only in connection with a white-and-green or white-and-yellow beacon display, respectively.
• Military airport beacons flash alternately white and green, but are differentiated from civil beacons by two quick white flashes between the green flashes.

In Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E surface areas, operation of the airport beacon during the hours of daylight often indicates that the ground visibility is less than 3 miles and/or the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet. Regardless of the weather conditions, the FAA has no regulation that requires airports to turn the beacon on during the day.

At some locations with operating control towers, Air Traffic Control (ATC) personnel turn the beacon on or off with controls in the tower. At many airports the airport beacon is turned on by a photoelectric cell or time clocks, and ATC personnel cannot control them.

An aircraft taking off eastward on runway 9 and staying in the traffic pattern will turn Crosswind (position 5) at approximately 400 feet above the runway, then Downwind to fly parallel the runway as shown at number 2 at an altitude approximately 800 feet above the runway. (Note: Some airports designate the pattern altitude to be 1000 feet.). Then when past the end of the runway will turn to Base between positions 2 and 3, while descending. The aircraft will the turn to Final at position 3. This is known as a Standard Left Hand Pattern. Also, according to the pattern indicators, a pattern for runway 36 is left hand. The downwind leg is on the west side of the airport, with all turns to the left.

The pattern indicators indicate landings on Runways 27 and 18 are right hand patterns. The downwind leg for runway 27 is north of the airport, with all turns to the right. Landing on 18, the downwind leg will be west of the airport, with all turns to the right.

Aircraft outside the pattern should enter the pattern approximately at mid point of the airport at a 45° angle to downwind (position 1). Aircraft leaving the traffic pattern should depart anywhere from “straight out" (position 6) to “crosswind” (position 5. A right turn departure from a left hand pattern is prohibited.

At airports with parallel runways, left hand pattern is used on the left runway; a right hand pattern is used on the right runway.

Traffic patterns at controlled airports with an operating control tower follow generally the same procedures. However, since the tower controller is responsible for traffic separation within the tower jurisdiction, the controller may grant or require other procedures. In all cases, except emergency, obey the controllers' instructions. The traffic pattern at tower-controlled airports is usually 1000 feet Above Ground Level (AGL).

All aircraft generate some turbulence, called Wake Turbulence. The turbulence from small aircraft is of little consequence. When the size and weight of the aircraft are great, the turbulence can be severe to other aircraft.

Cause

A number of factors contribute to wake turbulence. These are slipstream turbulence, jet blast, propeller wash, and wingtip vortices. The most severe of these disturbances is Wingtip Vortices. To over simplify, they are small tight horizontal tornadoes of air leaving the wing tips. The turbulence is a byproduct of the wing creating lift.

A pressure differential is created between the upper and lower surface of the wing. The low pressure is on the upper surface. This pressure differential creates a rolling airflow at the wing tip inward toward the fuselage. The rotating air mass trails rearward. The right vortex rolls counterclockwise; the left vortex is clockwise.

Vortex Avoidance

• Wingtip vortices have certain predictable characteristics. A large aircraft generates vortices from the moment of takeoff rotation. Takeoff rotation causes significant vortex.
• In flight, the sink rate of the vortices is 400 to 500 feet per minute, and levels out 900 to 1000 feet below the aircraft. Near the runway surface, a tailwind can cause the vortex to persist near the ground for several minutes if the wind is light.
• Large heavy aircraft generates significant vortex on landing. It has a high angle of attack of attack, and is slow and heavy. The point of greatest wing loading and vortex is the flare to touchdown. This is due to additional wing load caused by centrifugal force generated in the flare.
• When operating on and near large airports with large aircraft operations, caution concerning wake turbulence must be observed. The strength of the wingtip vortices is greatest then the aircraft is HEAVY, CLEAN and SLOW. The greatest hazard to small aircraft is coming across a vortex while operating near the ground.
• Each vortex is about 2 wingspans in width and one wingspan in depth. They remain spaced about one wingspan apart, drifting with the wind. In a no-wind situation, the vortices will persist on the runway. They move laterally outward about 2 to 3 knots on each side when striking the ground.
• A cross wind will add or subtract from the natural 2 - 3 knot lateral movement of each vortex. With a light crosswind component of about 3 knots, the upwind vortex can persist for a considerable time. The vortex movement and the opposing crosswind produce a stationary vortex.

STAY ABOVE AND UPWIND FROM THE VORTEX

Plan your strategy accordingly:

• When landing on the same runway behind a large aircraft, stay at or above the larger aircraft approach path. Note the touchdown point, and plan to land beyond that point.
• If landing on a runway parallel to and within 2500 feet of one being used by a large aircraft, use the same procedure as in 1 above.
• If landing on a runway crossing the larger aircraft runway, cross the other runway above the large aircraft flight path.
• Land well short of a large departing aircraft rotation point.
• If a large aircraft is departing a crossing runway, note the rotation point of the large craft.

If rotation is past the intersection, continue to land as you would normally.

If it rotates before the intersection, avoid flight below the aircraft flight path. Execute a missed approach unless you are sure you can stop well before the intersection.

• If departing behind a departing large aircraft, note the rotation point of the departing aircraft. Become airborne before the rotation point, and stay higher and upwind of the larger aircraft flight path. If unable, request the control tower for a change in flight direction away from the path of the larger aircraft.
• If you takeoff at an intersection, be cautious that your departure path will not cross under the path of a larger aircraft.
• You should ensure an interval of at least 2 minutes before takeoff or landing across or behind the path of a large aircraft that has executed a low pass, touch-and-go, or a missed approach.
• Avoid flight below the path of a larger aircraft when en route at altitude. Try to stay above or upwind of larger aircraft near your altitude.